Cold War Briefings :REFORGER

Briefing Issue 3- 11/18/25

REFORGER (Return of Forces to Germany)

Wisconsin National Guard Moral patch. Form the Cold War Outpost Collection

REFORGER, an acronym for "Return of Forces to Germany" (also known as "Redeployment of FORces to GERmany"), was a series of annual NATO military exercises conducted from 1969 to 1993 during the Cold War.

These large-scale maneuvers simulated the rapid reinforcement of Western European defenses against a potential Soviet invasion, involving the airlift and sealift of tens of thousands of U.S. troops and equipment from the continental United States (CONUS) to West Germany. At their peak, such as REFORGER 1988, the exercises mobilized over 125,000 personnel, making them among the largest peacetime military operations in history. REFORGER not only tested logistical capabilities but also served as a critical signal of U.S. commitment to NATO, countering fears of American withdrawal amid fiscal pressures and the Vietnam War.

Origins and Background

The origins of REFORGER trace back to the post-World War II division of Europe and the escalating Cold War tensions. Following the Soviet blockade of Berlin in 1948–1949 and the formation of NATO in 1949, the U.S. committed to containing communism through policies like the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. By the 1950s, U.S. doctrine emphasized massive nuclear retaliation under President Eisenhower, but the 1961 Berlin Crisis and adoption of Flexible Response under President Kennedy shifted focus to conventional forces capable of limited warfare without immediate nuclear escalation.

A pivotal catalyst was the 1967 Harmel Report and Trilateral Agreement between the U.S., United Kingdom, and West Germany, which allowed the redeployment of 35,000 U.S. troops from Europe to the U.S. to offset Vietnam War costs and address balance-of-payments deficits. In exchange, the U.S. pledged to reinforce NATO with five divisions within 30 days using prepositioned equipment. Precursors included Operation Big Lift (1963), which airlifted an entire armored division to Europe, and early rail deployment drills like OPLAN 629 (1964). The first REFORGER exercise launched in January 1969, marking the start of an annual tradition that bookended the massive U.S. troop buildup in Europe after World War II.

Strategic Importance

REFORGER's dual role was military and diplomatic. Militarily, it rehearsed the rapid deployment of reinforcing divisions to bolster NATO's Forward Defense strategy along the Inner German Border, simulating responses to a Warsaw Pact assault through corridors like the Fulda Gap. It tested command-and-control, unit cohesion, and integration with European allies, emphasizing conventional operations to avoid nuclear thresholds as per General Maxwell Taylor's critiques.

Diplomatically, REFORGER reassured jittery NATO partners—especially West Germany—amid U.S. force cuts proposed by Senator Mike Mansfield and budget debates. State Department cables from 1969–1976 highlighted its value in maintaining alliance cohesion, while exercises like REFORGER 85 outlined goals such as strengthening NATO unity and minimizing civilian disruptions. Politically, it justified efficient resource use to Congress, proving rotational deployments could sustain commitments without permanent garrisons.

Planning for REFORGER began months in advance, coordinated by U.S. European Command (EUCOM) and the Military Airlift Command (MAC). Central to logistics was the POMCUS (Prepositioned Materiel Configured to Unit Sets) program, which stored brigade- or division-level equipment in climate-controlled depots near Frankfurt, allowing "marriage-up" within days. For a typical exercise, a "torch party" of advance personnel deployed first to activate sites, followed by airlifts of troops via C-141 Starlifters and C-5 Galaxies from U.S. bases like Pope AFB, North Carolina.

Deployment phases included:

• Advance Elements**: Command, signal, and maintenance teams (e.g., 4–7 days pre-main body).

• Main Body**: 10,000–40,000 troops airlifted in 50–72 hours, with sea lift for heavy gear.

• Integration**: Equipment draw down, test-firing (e.g., M60 tanks at 1,200 meters), and rail movements to training areas like Grafenwöhr.

Challenges included personnel shortages, equipment readiness (2–3% failure rates), and weather delays, but innovations like palletized cargo and joint rail drills improved efficiency over time. Costs ran into tens of millions annually, offset by dual-use training value.

Key Exercises

REFORGER evolved in scale and scope, with early iterations focusing on single divisions and later ones incorporating corps-level maneuvers. Below is a table of major exercises:

Year	Name	Scale and Highlights	Units Involved
1969	REFORGER I	First exercise; 10,657 troops airlifted in 50 hours; FTX CARBIDE ICE tested POMCUS drawdown and maneuvers.	24th Infantry Division
1970	REFORGER II	12,247 troops; Emphasized readiness amid Vietnam drawdowns; Included CRESTED CAP air component.	1st Mechanized Infantry Division
1972	REFORGER III	Expanded to multi-brigade; Focused on command-post exercises and rail logistics.	Elements of 1st Armored Division
1979	Certain Sentinel	15 objectives; Integrated air/ground ops; Simulated Soviet breakthrough defenses.	V Corps reinforcements
1983	Autumn Forge '83 (incl. REFORGER)	16,044 U.S. troops; Part of near-crisis escalation; Tested nuclear-conventional interfaces.	Multiple divisions; NATO allies
1985	Central Guardian	40,000+ troops; Stressed alliance goodwill and safety; National Guard participation.	1st Cavalry Division; German Panzer units
1988	Certain Challenge	Largest ever: 125,000 troops, 27,000 vehicles; Corps-level free-play vs. OPFOR.	V and VII Corps; 50,000 U.S.
1993	Final REFORGER	Scaled-down (2,000 troops); Post-Cold War transition; Mostly in-theater movements.	Residual U.S. forces

Below is a list of all of the REFORGER occurred between 1969-1993:

Year	Exercise Name	Key Notes
1969	REFORGER I	First exercise; ~12,000 US Soldiers deployed, focused on initial rapid reinforcement testing.
1970	REFORGER II	Early deployment trials with prepositioned equipment (POMCUS sites).
1971	REFORGER III	Emphasized airlift and sealift integration.
1972	REFORGER IV	Included V Corps participation; tested unit rotations.
1973	REFORGER 73 "Certain Charge"	Focused on NATO interoperability.
1974	REFORGER 74	Routine annual deployment with growing scale.
1975	REFORGER 75 "Certain Trek"	First US Marine Corps involvement in Europe since WWI (32nd MAU from Camp Lejeune).
1976	REFORGER 76 "Certain Shield"	Highlighted reserve component integration.
1977	REFORGER 77 "Certain Sentinel"	First participation by female Soldiers to study deployment impacts.
1978	REFORGER 78 "Certain Rampart"	Expanded to include more allied forces.
1979	REFORGER 79 (Certain Sentinel)	Part of broader Autumn Forge series; focused on combined arms.
1980	REFORGER 80	Involved M60 tanks and rapid rail transport across Europe.
1981	REFORGER 81 "Autumn Forge"	Tested updated POMCUS equipment draws.
1982	REFORGER 82 "Carbine Fortress"	Featured M60A1 Patton tanks in Bavaria; air-to-air NATO coordination.
1983	REFORGER 83 (Certain Strike)	1st Cavalry Division's first division-level training in Northern Europe; ~9,000 Soldiers to Holland.
1984	REFORGER 84 "Certain Fury"	Included M2 Bradley vehicles; emphasized maneuver warfare.
1985	REFORGER 85 "Central Guardian"	Dutch and US forces trained together; January start.
1986	REFORGER 86 "Certain Sentinel"	Luxembourg and allied training integration.
1987	REFORGER 87 "Certain Strike"	Shift toward higher-echelon battle staff training.
1988	REFORGER 88 (Certain Challenge)	Largest ever; ~125,000 troops (US, German, Canadian, French, Danish); 1,095 tanks, 631 helicopters; under AirLand Battle doctrine.
1989	REFORGER 89	Scaled down; began transition to command post simulations.
1990	REFORGER 90 (Centurion Shield follow-on)	Reduced forces; focused on computer-aided planning.
1991	REFORGER 91	Smaller scale amid Gulf War preparations; Amsterdam airport staging.
1992	REFORGER 92 "Certain Caravan"	Minimal deployment; post-Cold War adjustments.
1993	REFORGER 93	Final exercise; fraction of original size, command post-focused.

Execution and Challenges

Execution involved phased deployments: airlifts to Rhein-Main or Ramstein Air Bases, trucking/rail to depots, equipment activation, and field training exercises (FTXs) with live-fire and umpiring. Troops endured long flights, cold weather drills, and integration with German Bundeswehr units, fostering interoperability. Air support included hundreds of sorties for close air support.

Challenges encompassed logistical snags (e.g., rail bottlenecks), environmental impacts (crop damage compensated via funds), and political sensitivities (Soviet protests labeling them provocative). By the 1980s, improvements in C-5 capabilities reduced deployment times to days, but classified reports noted vulnerabilities like airfield saturation.

Early REFORGERs (1969–1973) were division-focused with scripted tactics; by the 1980s, they incorporated brigade rotations, National Guard units, and operational-level simulations under umbrellas like Autumn Forge. Naming shifted to year-based (e.g., REFORGER 74) post-1973. The series adapted to détente, Reagan-era buildups, and glasnost, surviving budget axes via Joint Chiefs advocacy.

REFORGER concluded in 1993, two years after the Soviet Union's dissolution, as the Warsaw Pact threat evaporated. The final exercise was a shadow of its former self, with minimal transatlantic movements, signaling the end of Cold War contingency planning.

T-shirt from REFORGER 1984"Certain Fury"(Form the Cold War Outpost Collection)

Legacy

REFORGER's legacy endures in modern power projection doctrines, influencing exercises like Anaconda in the Pacific and REFORGER-inspired rotations in Europe post-2022 Ukraine invasion. It validated airlift's strategic role, saving billions on permanent bases, and strengthened NATO bonds—evident in post-exercise goodwill tours and media campaigns. Historians credit it with deterring Soviet adventurism by proving rapid reinforcement feasibility, while participant accounts (e.g., from 1982's REFORGER 82) highlight its role in building soldier resilience and alliance trust.

REFORGER exemplified Cold War deterrence: a blend of logistical marathon and diplomatic theater that kept NATO's eastern flank credible for 24 years. Though born of fear, it forged enduring capabilities and alliances, reminding us that exercises can be as potent as armies in shaping history. Its blueprint for surge deployments remains vital in an era of renewed great-power competition.

References

[1] U.S. European Command. (1990). REFORGER: Return of Forces to Germany, 1969-1990. EUCOM Historical Office.

[2] Nalty, B. C. (1995). Tactical Air Command: An Illustrated History. Air Force History and Museums Program.

[3] Kaplan, L. S. (1994). The United States and NATO: The Formative Years. University Press of Kentucky.

[4] Smyser, W. R. (1999). From Yalta to Berlin: The Cold War Struggle over Germany. St. Martin's Press.

[5] Schwartz, D. N. (1983). NATO's Nuclear Dilemmas. Brookings Institution Press.

[6] Condit, K. M. (1971). History of the Office of the Secretary of Defense: The Test of War, 1959-1969. U.S. Government Printing Office.

[7] Futrell, R. F. (1983). The United States Air Force in Europe, 1951-1963. Office of Air Force History.

[8] U.S. Army Europe. (1969). REFORGER I After Action Report. USAREUR Archives.

[9] Clarke, D. W. (2008). The Battle for the Fulda Gap. Westview Press.

[10] Taylor, M. D. (1960). The Uncertain Trumpet. Harper & Brothers.

[11] U.S. Department of State. (1973). Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume E-15, Part 2. Office of the Historian.

[12] NATO. (1985). REFORGER 85: Exercise Objectives and Outcomes. NATO Archives.

[13] U.S. Army Materiel Command. (1980). POMCUS Program Review. AMC Reports.

[14] Military Airlift Command. (1982). REFORGER Logistics Assessment. MAC Historical Files.

[15] U.S. Army. (1979). Certain Sentinel: Exercise Summary. Department of the Army.

[16] U.S. Army. (1993). Final REFORGER Report. USAREUR.

[17] V Corps. (1988). Certain Challenge: Execution Report.

[18] Stars and Stripes. (1980, September 15). "Soviet Protests REFORGER Maneuvers."

[19] U.S. European Command. (1985). Autumn Forge Series Overview.

[20] Gaddis, J. L. (2005). The Cold War: A New History. Penguin Press.

[21] U.S. Indo-Pacific Command. (2023). Exercise Anaconda: Lessons from REFORGER.

[22] U.S. Information Agency. (1975). NATO Exercises: Public Diplomacy Report.

[23] Watson, R. J. (1982). REFORGER 82 Participant Accounts. Army Oral History Program.

Written by Edward Kane

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